重要功能
皮肤以保护性的表面覆盖了整个身体,它是暴露在身体之外最大的器官。皮肤执行许多重要的功能:它调节人体的温度,并提供触觉、热冷反馈的感觉功能。
人的皮肤对诸如冷热,压力和冲击的外界影响相当敏感。对身体的伤害到通常从皮肤开始,而且大多数的意外始于保护层的损害。也难怪皮肤对来自于机体、身体和精神的伤害最敏感(Medausky, 1980)。
成年人皮肤的平均重量为6至7.5磅,表面积大概2平方英尺。皮肤的厚度从1/32英寸到1/8英寸不等。皮肤的成分包括大量的腺体,神经,皮肤细胞(它们是特殊的),毛发毛囊和血管(Katch&Katch,1980)
解剖学和生理学
皮肤由表皮,真皮和皮下组织这三层构成。表皮是通常不含有血管或神经的外侧皮肤。表皮外层脱落的死细胞称之为角质层cornified layer或颗粒层stratum corneum。表皮通常是坚韧的,因为它含有角蛋白,角状物质。角质层下面的浅层就是所谓的透明层。
身体表面所看见的皮肤大多数由死亡细胞构成。这些表面皮肤慢慢的更新,死亡细胞不断的被废弃,同时保留柔软健康的皮肤。健康的皮肤有许多毛孔,它是腺体的出口。皮脂腺分泌油脂液体,使得皮肤显得光滑多脂。毛发,几乎在身体的所有部分都能找到,它从埋在皮肤之内的毛囊中生长。
由角质层、透明层和粘膜层构成表皮层下方是真皮。毛囊和血管系统以及负责皮肤弹性的弹性纤维,可以在整个真皮层中找到。在真皮层可以找到为感觉提供体验的神经和神经末梢。这些神经末梢负责皮肤远离冷热紧急情况下产生的危险。神经末梢向身体警示外部危险。触觉的神经末梢比冷热的神经末梢更多。真皮层延伸进入表皮;因此,这两层相互交织。
皮肤的第三层,叫做皮下组织,位于真皮的下方。该层是由具有隔离能力的脂肪组成(Clark & Cumley, 1973)。
黑色素,褐色至黑色的色素,影响皮肤的颜色。黑色素的产生是由一系列的生物和化学反应引起的。这一系列的反应开始于酪氨酸的氧化并被酪氨酸酶催化。酪氨酸是一种氨基酸,酪氨酸酶是一种酶。遗传学因素决定了有多少黑色素产生。然而,黑色素可以比正常值呈现更多的数量,也可能完全丢失,或者可能分布不均匀。当皮肤的黑色素数量较少时,皮肤会呈现出粉红的颜色。当皮肤发黄,这可能是由于胡萝卜素色素的存在。这种色素通常能在许多蔬菜中找到,并与维生素A有关。当过量摄入含有维生素A的物质,皮肤可能会变得异常发黄。这种情况被成为胡罗卜素血症。其他非自然原因也可以引起皮肤变色。黄疸会导致皮肤看上去更黄,这是由患有某种疾病的内脏器官导致。皮肤随着年龄的增长,恼怒或过度暴露在阳光或风下而变化。
SKIN AND PSYCHOSOMATICS皮肤与心身医学(待译)
The skin, being the protective surface of the body, is exposed to numerousharmful influences, and the nerve endings in the skin are recipients of a great vaiiety of antigens. The skin is highly sensitive to pain,which can be elicited by physical and psychological factors. Most skin diseases are not lethal, but they are usually quite painful and may seriously affect the physical and mental functioning of an individual (Medansky,1980).
Psychological factors and especially emotions exert considerable influences on the skin. Blushing is usually an expression of shame, and itching is a sign of impatience. The body surface is also the somatic locus of exhibitionism. Reflex changes in the skin, such as pallor and flushing, are constituent parts of the emotional states of rage and fear. The skin functions as an important sensory organ and is affected by conversion symptoms such as anesthesia and paresthesia. Clinical studies of skin manifestations as a part of neurotic symptomatology have been conducted onneurodermatitis, eczema, angioneurotic edema, uticaria, and pruritis. Ineczema and neurodermatitis, sadomasochistic and exhibitionistic trend shave been claimed to be correlated with the skin symptoms (Alexander &Flagg, 1965; Engels, 1983, 1985; Torch & Bishop, 1981).
All psychosomatic disorders serve a purpose, such as gaining affection or escaping from responsibilities. Psychosomatic disorders require visibility,and the skin is a choice location for visibility. The need to be seen and to get attention is well served by skin diseases, and with the exception of clearly organic cases, most skin diseases are psychosomatic.Psychosomatic disorders are often associated with self-directed harmful behavior. Self-induced pain and accident-proneness are usually of psychosomatic origin. In skin diseases, scratching is of considerable etiological significance. Psychoanalytic studies imply that scratching is dueto inhibited hostile impulses, which, because of guilt feelings, are deflected from their original target and are turned against oneself. Craving for physical signs of affection, such as being held, cuddled, stroked, and soothed,is involved in skin reactions to the feelings of guilt for being over demanding.Scratching is used as a self-punishing defense mechanism (Alexander,1950; Musaph, 1964, 1977).
ALLERGIES过敏症(待译)
Allergies have been defined as an II overreaction" of the organism's defense system. Usually, the body fights antigens (the foreign invading bodies) by producing antibodies, but in allergies, the development of antibodies in reaction to allergens is excessive and definitely out of proportion to the threat.
Allergies represent a combination of physicochemical and psychological determinants. The invading allergens can affect the gastrointestinal system, the respiratory system, and the skin. Allergic disorders vary from mild to very severe, and even lethal. Well over 10% of the U.S. population has some allergy, and one need not exclude the possibility of there being certain genetic predispositions to allergies.
Most probably, the "hammer-and-anvil" scheme mentioned in Chapter15 applies to allergies. The genetic predisposition of the immune systemis the anvil, and the two hammers are the allergens and the stressors. Parental rejection is a highly relevant emotional "hammer" in asthma; frustrations and the loss of a beloved. person are relevant "hammers" in neurodermatitis;and the emotional inconsistency of a child's parents plays the role of "hammer" in infantile eczema.
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神经症,完美主义者,焦虑或内疚缠身的人往往遭受各种皮肤疾病的困扰,尤其是皮炎。皮炎的主要症状是皮肤红斑,结痂,水泡发红,脱屑,开裂,渗出的液体,或剧烈瘙痒。症状的严重程度通常与情绪障碍有关:心烦意乱的人会出现面部及外阴病变;稍好好一点的困扰是,他们的手上会起水泡(Whitlock, 1976)。小儿皮炎通常是母体排斥的产物。被拒绝的孩子的怨恨母亲排斥,而皮疹可能代表愤怒和敌对情绪的爆发。有些孩子因为怨恨拒绝他们的父母而怨恨自己;他们埋怨自己被母体排斥,并因为自己是“坏小孩”而惩罚自己。
皮炎是皮肤的炎症。炎症可以通过物理或心理,以及两者的共同因素引起。强迫性