John
Bowlby - Attachment Theory
Attachment is a special emotional relationship that
involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure. The roots of
research on attachment began with Freud’s theories about love, but
another researcher is usually credited as the father of attachment
theory. John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the concept of
attachment, describing it as a “…lasting psychological connectedness
between human beings" (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby shared the
psychoanalytic view that early experiences in childhood have an
important influence on development and behavior later in life. Our early
attachment styles are established in childhood through the
infant/caregiver relationship. In addition to this, Bowlby believed that
attachment had an evolutionary component; it aids in survival. “The
propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals [is]
a basic component of human nature” (Bowlby, 1988, 3).
Bowlby believed that there are four distinguishing characteristics of
attachment:
- Proximity Maintenance – The desire to be near the people we are attached
to.
- Safe Haven – Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety
in the face of a fear or threat.
- Secure Base – The attachment figure acts as a base of security from
which the child can explore the surrounding environment.
- Separation Distress – Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the
attachment figure.
Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation" Assessment
Parent and infant are along in a room.
child explores without partntal participation.
stranger enters room, takls to parent, and approaches infant.
parent leaves quietly.
parent returns and comforts infant. |
During the 1970’s, researcher Mary Ainsworth further expanded upon
Bowlby’s groundbreaking work in her now-famous “Strange Situation”
study. The study involved observing children between the ages of 12 to
18 months responding to a situation in which they were briefly left
alone and then reunited with their mother (Ainsworth, 1978).
Based on these observations, Ainsworth concluded that there were three
major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure
attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Researchers Main and
Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment style known as
disorganized-insecure attachment. Numerous studies have supported
Ainsworth’s conclusions and additional research has revealed that these
early attachment styles can help predict behaviors later in life.
Attachment Through Life
Before you start blaming relationship problems on your parents, it is
important to note that attachment styles formed in infancy are not
necessarily identical to those demonstrated in adult
romantic-attachment. A great deal of time has elapsed between infancy
and adulthood, so intervening experiences also play a large role in
adult attachment styles. Those described as ambivalent or avoidant in
infancy can become securely attached as adults, while those with a
secure attachment in childhood can show insecure attachment styles in
adulthood. Basic temperament is also thought to play a partial role in
attachment.
But research in this area does indicate that patterns established in
childhood have an important impact on later relationships. Researchers
Hazen and Shaver (1987) found a number of different beliefs about
relationships amongst adults with differing attachment styles. Securely
attached adults tend to believe that romantic love is enduring.
Ambivalently attached adults report falling in love often, while those
with avoidant attachment styles describe love as rare and temporary.
While we cannot say that infant attachment styles are identical to adult
romantic-attachment styles, research has shown that early attachment
styles can help predict patterns of behavior in adulthood.
Secure Attachment
characteristics of secure
attachment |
as children |
as adults |
separate essily from parent |
have trusting,lasting relationships |
seek comfort from parent when frightened |
tend to have good selfesteem |
greet parents positively |
comfortable sharing feelings |
prefers parent to stranger. |
seeks out social support. |
Children who are securely attached do not experience significant
distress when separated from caregivers. When frightened, these children
will seek comfort from the parent or caregiver. Contact initiated by a
parent is readily accepted by securely attached children and they greet
the return of a parent with positive behavior. While these children do
not become exceptionally distressed by a parent’s absence, they clearly
prefer parents to strangers. Parents of securely attached children tend
to play more with their children. Additionally, these parents react more
quickly to their children’s needs and are generally more responsive to
their children than the parents of insecurely attached children. Studies
have shown that securely attached children are more empathetic during
later stages of childhood. These children are also described as less
disruptive, less aggressive, and more mature than children with
ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles. As adults, those who are
securely attached tend to have trusting, long-term relationships. Other
key characteristics of securely attached individuals include having high
self-esteem, enjoying intimate relationships, seeking out social
support, and an ability to share feelings with other people. In one
study, researchers found that women with a secure attachment style had
more positive feelings about their adult romantic relationships than
other women with insecure attachment styles (Mccarthy G., 1999).
Ambivalent Attachment
Children who are ambivalently attached tend to be extremely suspicious
of strangers. These children display considerable distress when
separated from a parent or caregiver, but do not seem reassured or
comforted by the return of the parent. In some cases, the child might
passively reject the parent by refusing comfort, or may openly display
direct aggression toward the parent. According to Cassidy and Berlin
(1994), ambivalent attachment is relatively uncommon, with only 7% to
15% of infants in the United States displaying this attachment style. In
a review of ambivalent attachment literature, Cassidy and Berlin also
found that observational research consistently links ambivalent-insecure
attachment to low maternal availability. As these children grow older,
teachers often describe them as clingy and over-dependent. As adults,
those with an ambivalent attachment style often feel reluctant about
becoming close to others and worry that their partner does not
reciprocate their feelings. This leads to frequent breakups, often
because the relationship feels cold and distant. These individuals feel
especially distraught after the end of a relationship. Cassidy and
Berlin described another pathological pattern where ambivalently
attached adults cling to young children as a source of security (1994).
Avoidant Attachment
characteristics of avoidant
attachment |
as children |
as adults |
may avoid parents |
have difficulties with intimacy |
does not seek much comfort or contact from parents |
invest little emotion in relationships |
shows no preference between parent and stranger. |
unable tp share thoughts and feelings with others. |
Children with avoidant attachment styles tend to avoid parents and
caregivers. This avoidance often becomes especially pronounced after a
period of absence. These children might not reject attention from a
parent, but neither do they seek our comfort or contact. Children with
an avoidant attachment show no preference between a parent and a
complete stranger.
As adults, those with an avoidant attachment tend to have difficulty
with intimacy and close relationships. These individuals do not invest
much emotion in relationships and experience little distress when a
relationship ends. They often avoid intimacy by using excuses (such as
long work hours), or may fantasize about other people during sex.
Research has also shown that adults with an avoidant attachment style
are more accepting and likely to engage in casual sex (Feeney, J.,
Noller, and Patty 1993). Other common characteristics include a failure
to support partners during stressful times and an inability to share
feelings, thoughts, and emotions with partners.
Disorganized Attachment
characteristics of
disorganized attachment |
at age 1 |
at age 6 |
show a mixture of resistant and avoidant behaviors |
take on a parental role. |
seem confused, dazed, or apprehensive. |
some children act as a caregiver toward the parent. |
Children with a disorganized-insecure attachment style show a lack of
clear attachment behavior. Their actions and responses to caregivers are
often a mix of behaviors, including avoidance or resistance. These
children are described as displaying dazed behavior, sometimes seeming
either confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver. Main and
Solomon (1986) proposed that inconsistent behavior on the part of
parents might be a contributing factor in this style of attachment. In
later research, Main and Hesse (1990) argued that parents who act as
figures of both fear and reassurance to a child contribute to a
disorganized attachment style. Because the child feels both comforted
and frightened by the parent, confusion results.
References
- Ainsworth, M.; Blehar, M.; Waters, E.; and Wall, S. (1978).
Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment.
New York: Basic Books.
- Bowlby, J. (1979). The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds.
London: Tavistock.
- Bowlby, J. (1988). A Secure Base. New York: Basic Books.
- Feeney, J. A.; Noller, P.; and Patty, J. (1993). "Adolescents'
Interactions with the Opposite Sex: Influence of Attachment Style
and Gender." Journal of Adolescence 16, 169–186.
- Hazen, C. & Shaver, P. (1987) Romantic love conceptualized as an
attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
52, 511-524.
- Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents' unresolved traumatic
experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is
frightened/frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In
M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment
in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention, 161-182.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an
insecure-disorganized/ disoriented attachment pattern: Procedures,
findings and implications for the classification of behavior. In T.
B. Brazelton & M. Yogman (Eds.), Affective Development in
Infancy, 95-124. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
- Mccarthy, G. (1999) Attachment style and adult love
relationships and friendships: A study of a group of women at risk
of experiencing relationship difficulties. British Journal of
Medical Psychology, Volume 72, Number 3, September 1999, pp.
305-321(17).
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