自我分析 (Ego analysis)
作者: mints / 22650次阅读 时间: 2011年3月25日
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\"C#v2c AP{Z0Fairbairn (1946a & b; 1954) was one of the pioneers in emphasizing the importance of the ego. He developed an object-relations theory, patterned after some of the conceptions of Melanie Klein, which posited a splitting of the ego in early infancy as a consequence of reciprocal action of introjected good and bad objects. While the ego was whole at birth (rather than incomplete as in classical theory), unfortunate relationships with the mother fostered this splitting. The function of the instincts (libido) was to seek good objects. This was needed to promote ego growth. Aggression was a reaction to frustration of the libidinal drive in this quest. Aggression, therefore, was a defense rather than an instinct (as in classical theory). Loss of ego integrity through the process of splitting and evolvement of internal ego-object relations created pathology. The development process was thus bracketed to vicissitudes of objects rather than vicissitudes of instincts. Early interactions of mother and child as a basis for ego development was also emphasized by Winnicott(1958).

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Among the contentions of these early adherents of ego psychology such as Fairbairn was the idea that objects were not casual figures who served merely as conduits for infantile need gratification, but rather an integral part of the infant's nature and instinctually sought out from the start. In this way Fairbairn anticipated what later researchers in human development demonstrated, namely, that the newborn child was object-related from the moment of birth. Instead of considering structure (the ego) and energy (the id) as distinct entities, Fairbairn contended that they were intimately bound together. Libido was not pleasure-seeking s much as object-seeking, and this was a biological survival mechanism. A so-called primary narcissistic objectless initial stage of development was an empty abstraction, because object-seeking, albeit disorganized at first, was the primary aim of the infant. Relations with an object were the key to survival of the individual (mouth to breast) and later to the survival of the race (genitals to genitals). Adaptation was the product of a good relationship between individual and object; psychopathology, the consequence of a poor relationship.心理学空间 b&u1Om5D*g

AB:FP6j9h;wIG0The conviction that human behavior is too complex to be accounted for purely in terms of instinctual processes gradually turned a body of Freudians toward the focal consideration of dimensions of personality other than the id, particularly the ego, while retaining fidelity to the dynamic, structural, economic, topographic, and other basic psychoanalytic concepts, including the libido theory. Among the first of these "ego analysts" were Anna Freud (1946), Erikson (1946,1950), Hartmann (1950a & b, 1951, 1958), Rapaport (1950,1951,1958,1960), Kris (1951), and Loewenstein (1953). The direction of the ego analysts has been less introspective and speculative than it has been empirical, based on factual investigations, the systematic gathering of data, and organized experiments. Attempts have been made to avoid philosophical issues and implications in order to deal more scientifically with facts. This has led to intensive studies of the child and particularly responses to various child-rearing practices, interactions within the family, as well as the influence of the community. Sociological and anthropological vectors have accordingly entered into some of the emerging formulations, although the orientation is definitely a biological one.心理学空间~*wd.I \#x

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Although primary psychological drives are considered basic and important, these are dealt with in the context of the molding and modifying influence of the environment, which is believed to play a decisive role in eliciting behavior independent of instinctual forces. Building on Freud's conceptions of instinct, ego analysts regard behavior as undifferentiated at birth, at which time the infant possesses certain response potentials, innately derived but requiring the influence of environment to arouse and consolidate them into adaptive sequences. Among the groupings of responses are certain internal and external elicitors of behavior that are distinctive from instincts-those that deal with responses to perceptual stimuli and those that serve organizing, integrating, and controlling functions. Response patterns serve to adjust the individual to the particular environment. Responses such as awareness and thought, which serve to control and direct behavior, are also innately determined. Learned responses soon displace instinctual and automatic reactions. Behavior is more than a means of reduction of sexual and aggressive energies. Ego functions can be pleasurable in their own right. Among the most important ego functions are those that mediate perceptions and sensation and support operations that maintain contact with the external and internal environment; there are those that deal with awareness and attention (which can help delay or inhibit impulses), those that govern thinking and communicating (verbal response), and others that control action and motility, enabling management of one's environment. The ego in its synthetic, integrating, and organizing operations fosters a controlled, thoughtful, planned, and efficient mediation of behavior directed at consciously selected goal.

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Though psychosocial development is crucial during the first five years of life, laying down patterns that will determine behavior throughout the remainder of an individual's existence, these patterns are not as completely fixed and unmodifiable as the earlier Freudian theorists supposed. Nevertheless, at certain stages of growth environmental experiences can have a decisive influence on the total personality structure.心理学空间 Zcu ]{M9_ B`3u

K_%J*pH0D^(l Z aL0Ego development occurs immediately after birth as the child discriminates between inner responses and the influences of the environment, for instance, in feeding. Gradually the child differentiates self from the environment and anticipates future events. Frustrations encourage self-control. The child develops the ability to recall past situations in which delay in gratification was followed by fulfillment. Habitual response patterns are developed in relation to surrounding objects enabling the child to win their approval and to control feelings from within. A sense of personal continuity and identity emerge. Problem solving and coping are aided by imitation (identification). The social milieu becomes incorporated within the individual, seducing the child, as Erikson has put it, to its particular life style. Self-esteem is built from exercise of different skills and the fulfilling of inter-personal experiences. Defense mechanisms are evolved to control fear and the situations in which it becomes conditioned. The signal of anxiety serves to mobilize defenses in the repertory of the child, and although the early conditions that fostered them no longer exist, the individual may continue to employ them throughout life. Learned patterns of behavior are established as "hierarchical structures" from the base of the earliest patterns to the apex of the latest responses the original ones never being completely ablated but merely replaced by the later ones. This applies also to thoughts, at the foundation of which are primitive "primary -process" thought patterns concerned with instinctual drive reduction; these are replaced gradually by logical thought. Furthermore, the mechanisms of defense are in hierarchical arrangements. Their antecedents reside in physiological responses, and their latest representations are in the form of creative thought.

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!]RP2C#e+n/shX0Behavior is considered to be neither the by-product of instinctual energies nor the result of situational events. Rather, it is a mode that reflects and yet gradually achieves relative independence from both through the development of autonomous stable response structures. Healthy behavior is under conscious control. When the ego loses its autonomy from the id or from reality, behavior is no longer under conscious control and pathology may ensue. This is particularly the case when residual stable behavior patterns are insufficient to deal with an existing stress situation. A variety of circumstances contribute to the formation and maintenance of learned adaptive structures, and a consideration of these is vital to the understanding of the behavior pathology.心理学空间%QL#O%nv

_+_1t2AuQ&m0In therapy that is conducted under orthodox Freudian rules, an added goal is an attempt at expansion of the repertory of learned patterns to enhance conscious control of behavior in relation to both inner impulse and environmental pressures. Hartmann has speculated that eventually a technique system will be evolved that can keep abreast of new theoretical developments. Under such a system an effort would be made to understand not only pathological but also adaptive behavior patterns and to examine the interrelationship between the conflict and nonconflict aspects of the ego while tracing the antecedents of neurotic anxiety. There is an implication in some of the writings of ego analysts that therapy should embody more active procedures than the orthodox techniques employ. For instance, interpretations should be couched in terms of specific events rather than in abstract concepts. A focus on immediate problems in the current life situation and character defenses that influence interpersonal relationships can be productive.心理学空间%yh"Q!FTK:} o

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In summary, the basic contributions of "ego analysts," as these analysts have become known, are the following:
$i(B j8X rB!\4u"S\01. Behavior is determined by forces other than instinct in the form of response sequences encompassed under the classification of "ego."
|$D1p:?.R02. The ego as an entity has an autonomy separate from both instinct and reality.心理学空间@I/]mb4F+Z
3. The ego supports drives for environmental mastery and adaptive learning that are divorced from sexual and aggressive instincts.心理学空间8^$O-J8w e:W$f N(ta
4. The adaptive aspects of learned behavior are as important as instinctual behavior and lead to important gratifications in their own right.
%FABn Tp S6[nN05. A greater emphasis must be put on the environment and on healthy, as opposed to pathological, behavior than is found in orthodox Freudian approaches. An understanding of pathological behavior in relation to normal behavior is vital.
t,E\7TG06. Personality is more plastic and modifiable, even beyond the period of childhood, than is traditionally supposed. A more hopeful prognosis is consequently forecast.
J fJf7J_:S07. The human being is the master of his or her destiny and can control and select behavioral patterns to achieve differentiated goals.心理学空间1FI5X G u+g6~
8. Society is a force that does not necessarily emerge from a human being's expressions of instinct; nor does it always thwart the biologic nature of a human being. It can exert a constructive influence on the individual while modifying primitive instinctual drives.心理学空间%DBiCc H$WW7k6x
9. Conscious and learned responses are basic to a person's adjustment.
0_$E&mH1y0F010. Technical innovations in the direction of greater activity are sometimes necessary.

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Criticisms of ego analysis 心理学空间,YXs-i-T5p

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Many non-Freudians contend that ego analysts essentially have not really abandoned the archaic classical model. They have merely altered it to fit into a more palatable framework of development and learning. While the structural hypothesis of id, ego and superego conceptualizes some aspects of behavioral function, by no means does it encompass all aspects. The mechanisms of adaptation are so complex and involve so many facets of behavior that simplistic models cover only limited areas of operation. There are also flaws in the related epigenetic theory that identifies sequential stages of learning in the developmental process and organizes a diagnostic system around these stages. Of course, assessment of development levels and existing fixations is a convenient way of looking at pathology, but inferences drawn from this regarding coping capacities are not always correct, and in fact may be misleading.心理学空间%j3{E:^ fWZ

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Freudians, on the other hand, insist that Freud in no way minimized the importance of external objects and their function in molding the inner organization. They believe that putting the ego at the helm of the entire psychic structure neglects other important and perhaps more determining components. The ego should be considered a substructure, a part of the total apparatus, emerging from the original primary narcissism, gradually evolving as an aggregate of functions.心理学空间)m afHF;t0G q.J

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